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Protecting Cultural Landscapes:
Planning, Treatment and Management of Historic Landscapes
Charles A. Birnbaum, ASLA
Cultural landscapes can
range from thousands of acres of ruraltracts of land to a
small homestead with a front yard of lessthan one acre. Like
historic buildings and districts, these specialplaces reveal
aspects of our country's origins and developmentthrough their
form and features and the ways they were used.
Culturallandscapes also reveal much about our evolving
relationship withthe natural world.
A cultural
landscape is defined as "a geographic area,including both
cultural and natural resources and the wildlifeor domestic
animals therein, associated with a historic event,activity,
or person or exhibiting other cultural or aestheticvalues."
There are four general types of cultural landscapes,not
mutually exclusive: historic sites, historic designed
landscapes,historicvernacular landscapes, and ethnographic
landscapes. Theseare defined on the Table on page
2.1
Historic
landscapes include residential gardensand community
parks, scenic highways, rural communities,
institutionalgrounds, cemeteries, battlefields and zoological
gardens. Theyare composed of a number of character defining
features whichindividually or collectively contribute to the
landscape's physicalappearance as they have evolved over
time. In addition to vegetationand topography, cultural
landscapes may include water featuressuch as ponds, streams,
and fountains; circulation features suchas roads, paths,
steps, and walls; buildings; and furnishings,including
fences, benches, lights and sculptural objects.
Most historic properties
have a cultural landscape component thatis integral to the
significance of the resource. Imagine a residentialdistrict
without sidewalks, lawns and trees or a plantation
withbuildings but no adjacent lands. A historic property
consistsof all its cultural resources - landscapes,
buildings, archeologicalsites and collections. In some
cultural landscapes, there maybe a total absence of
buildings.
This Preservation Brief
provides preservation professionals, culturalresource
managers, and historic property owners a step-by-stepprocess
for preserving historic designed and vernacular
landscapes,two types of cultural landscapes. While this
process is ideallyapplied to an entire landscape, it can
address a single featuresuch as a perennial garden, family
burial plot, or a sentineloak in an open meadow. This Brief
provides a framework and guidancefor 9 undertaking projects
to ensure a successful balance betweenhistoric preservation
and change.
Definitions
Historic Designed
Landscape - a landscape that wasconsciously designed
or laid out by a landscape architect, mastergardener,
architect, or horticulturist according to design
principles,or an amateur gardener working in a recognized
style or tradition.The landscape may be associated with a
significant person(s),trend, or event in landscape
architecture; or illustrate an importantdevelopment in the
theory and practice of landscape architecture.Aesthetic
values play a significant role in designed
landscapes.Examples include parks, campuses, and
estates.
Historic Vernacular
Landscape - a landscape thatevolved through use by
the people whose activities or occupancyshaped that
landscape. Through social or cultural attitudes ofan
individual, family or a community, the landscape reflects
thephysical, biological, and cultural character of those
everydaylives. Function plays a significant role in
vernacular landscapes.They can be a single property such as a
farm or a collection ofproperties such as a district of
historic farms along a rivervalley. Examples include rural
villages, industrial complexes,and agricultural
landscapes.
Historic Site
- a landscape significant for itsassociation with a
historic event, activity, or person. Examplesinclude
battlefields and president's house properties.
Ethnographic
Landscape - a landscape containinga variety of
natural and cultural resources that associated peopledefine
as heritage resources. Examples are contemporary
settlements,religious sacred sites and massive geological
structures. Smallplant communities, animals, subsistence and
ceremonial groundsare often components.
Developing a
Strategy and Seeking Assistance
Nearly all designed and
vernacular landscapes evolve from, orare often dependent on,
natural resources. It is these interconnectedsystems of land,
air and water, vegetation and wildlife whichhave dynamic
qualities that differentiate cultural landscapesfrom other
cultural resources, such as historic structures. Thus, their
documentation,treatment, and ongoing management require a
comprehensive, multi-disciplinaryapproach.
Today, those involved in
preservation planning and managementfor cultural landscapes
represent a broad array of academic backgrounds,training, and
related project experience. Professionals may haveexpertise
in landscape architecture, history, landscape
archeology,forestry, agriculture, horticulture, pomology,
pollen analysis,planning, architecture, engineering (civil,
structural, mechanical,traffic), cultural geography,
wildlife, ecology, ethnography,interpretation, material and
object conservation, landscape maintenanceand management.
Historians and historic preservation professionalscan bring
expertise in the history of the landscape, architecture,art,
industry, agriculture, society and other subjects.
Landscapepreservation teams, including on-site management
teams and independentconsultants, are often directed by a
landscape architect withspecific expertise in landscape
preservation. It is highly recommendedthat disciplines
relevant to the landscapes' inherent featuresbe represented
as well.
Additional guidance may
be obtained from State Historic PreservationOffices, local
preservation commissions, the National Park Service,local and
state park agencies, national and state chapters ofthe
American Society of Landscape Architects, the Alliance
forHistoric Landscape Preservation, the National Association
of OlmstedParks, and the Catalog of Landscape Records in the
United Statesat Wave Hill among others.2
A range of issues may
need to be addressed when considering howa particular
cultural landscape should be treated. This may includethe
in-kind replacement of declining vegetation, reproductionof
furnishings, rehabilitation of structures, accessibility
provisionsfor people with disabilities, or the treatment of
industrial propertiesthat are rehabilitated for new
uses.
Preservation
Planning for Cultural Landscapes
Careful planning prior to
undertaking work can help prevent irrevocabledamage to a
cultural landscape. Professional techniques for
identifying,documenting, evaluating and preserving cultural
landscapes haveadvanced during the past 25 years and are
continually being refined.Preservation planning generally
involves the following steps:historical research; inventory
and documentation of existing conditions;site analysis and
evaluation of integrity and significance; developmentof a
cultural landscape preservation approach and treatment
plan;development of a cultural landscape management plan and
managementphilosophy; the development of a strategy for
ongoing maintenance;and preparation of a record of treatment
and future research recommendations.
The steps in this process
are not independent of each other, norare they always
sequential. In fact, information gathered in onestep may lead
to a re-examination or refinement of previous steps.For
example, field inventory and historical research are likelyto
occur simultaneously, and may reveal unnoticed cultural
resourcesthat should be protected.
The treatment and
management of cultural landscape should alsobe considered in
concert with the management of an entire historicproperty. As
a result, many other studies may be relevant. Theyinclude
management plans, interpretive plans, exhibit design,historic
structures reports, and other.
These steps can result in
several products including a CulturalLandscape Report (also
known as a Historic Landscape Report),statements for
management, interpretive guide, maintenance guideand
maintenance records.
Cultural Landscape
Reports
A Cultural Landscape
Report (CLR) is the primary report that documentsthe history,
significance and treatment of a cultural landscape.A CLR
evaluates the history and integrity of the landscape
includingany changes to its geographical context, features,
materials,and use.
CLWs are often prepared
when a change (e.g. a new visitor's centeror parking area to
a landscape) is proposed. In such instances,a CLR can be a
useful tool to protect the landscape's
character-definingfeatures from undue wear, alteration or
loss. A CLR can providemanagers, curators and others with
information needed to makemanagement decisions.
A CLR will often yield
new information about a landscape's historicsignificance and
integrity, even for those already listed on theNational
Register. Where appropriate, National Register filesshould be
amended to reflect the new findings.
Historical
Research
Research is essential
before undertaking any treatment. Findingswill help identify
a landscape's historic period(s) of ownership,occupancy and
development, and bring greater understanding ofthe
associations and characteristics that make the landscape
orhistory significant. Research findings provide a foundation
tomake educated decisions for work, and can also facilitate
ongoingmaintenance and management operations, interpretation
and eventualcompliance requirements.
A variety of primary and
secondary sources may be consulted. Primaryarchival sources
can include historic plans, surveys, plats, taxmaps, atlases,
U. S. Geological Survey maps, soil profiles,
aerialphotographs, photographs, stereoscopic views, glass
lantern slides,postcards, engravings, paintings, newspapers,
journals, constructiondrawings, specifications, plant lists,
nursery catalogs, householdrecords, account books and
personal correspondence. Secondarysources include monographs,
published histories, theses, NationalRegister forms, survey
data, local preservation plans, state contextsand scholarly
articles. (See Figures 5-7, page 4.)
Contemporary documentary
resources should also be consulted. Thismay include recent
studies, plans, surveys, aerial and infraredphotographs, Soil
Conservation Service soil maps, inventories,investigations
and interviews. Oral histories of residents, managers,and
maintenance personnel with a long tenure or historical
associationcan be valuable sources of information about
changes to a landscapeover many years. (Figures 8-9, page 4)
For properties listed inthe National Register, nomination
forms should be consulted.
Preparing Period
Plans
In the case of designed
landscapes, even though a historic designplan exists, it does
not necessarily mean that it was realizedfully, or even in
part. Based on a review of the archival resourcesoutlined
above, and the extant landscape today, an as-builtperiod
plan may be delineated. For all successive tenures of
ownership, occupancyand landscape change, period pl
us should be generated(see Figure 13, page 6). Period
plans can document to the greatestextent possible the
historic appearance during a particular periodof ownership,
occupancy, or development. Period plans should bebased on
primary archival sources and should avoid conjecture.Features
that are based on secondary or less accurate sourcesshould be
graphically differentiated. Ideally, all referencedarchival
sources should be annotated and footnoted directly
onperiod plans.
Where historical data is
missing, period plans should reflectany gaps in the CLR
narrative text and these limitations consideredin future
treatment decisions (See Treatments for Cultural Landscapeson
page 13.)
Inventorying and
Documenting Existing Conditions
Both physical evidence in
the landscape and historic documentationguide the historic
preservation plan and treatments. To documentexisting
conditions, intensive field investigation and
reconnaissanceshould be conducted at the same time that
documentary researchis being gathered. Information should be
exchanged among preservationprofessionals, historians,
technicians, local residents, managersand visitors.
To assist in the survey
process, National Register Bulletins havebeen published by
the National Park Service to aid in identifying,nominating
and evaluating designed and rural historic
landscapes.Additionally, Bulletins are available for specific
landscape typessuch as battlefields, mining sites, and
cemeteries.6
Although there are
several ways to inventory and document a landscape,the goal
is to create a baseline from a detailed record of
thelandscape and its features as they exist at the present
(consideringseasonal variations).7 Each landscape inventory
should addressissues of boundary delineation, documentation
methodologies and techniques, the limitationsof the
inventory, and the scope of inventory efforts. These aremost
often influenced by the timetable, budget, project scope,and
the purpose of the inventory and, depending on the
physicalqualities of the property, its scale, detail, and the
interrelationshipbetween natural and cultural resources. For
example, inventoryobjectives to develop a treatment plan may
differ considerablycompared to those needed to develop an
ongoing maintenance plan.Once the criteria for a landscape
inventory are developed andtested, the methodology should be
explained.
Preparing Existing
Condition Plans
Inventory and
documentation may be recorded in plans, sections,photographs,
aerial photographs, axonometric perspectives,
narratives,video-or any combination of techniques. Existing
conditions shouldgenerally be documented to scale, drawn by
hand or generated bycomputer. The scale of the drawings is
often determined by thesize and complexity of the landscape.
Some landscapes may requiredocumentation at more than one
scale. For example, a large estatemay be documented at
a small scale to depict its spatialand visual
relationships, while the discrete area around an estate
mansionmay require a larger scale to illustrate individual
plant materials,pavement patterns and other details. The same
may apply to anentire rural historic district and a
fenced vegetable garden containedwithin. (See Figures 14-15,
page 8).
When landscapes are
documented in photographs, registrationpoints can be
set to indicate the precise location and orientationof
features. Registration points should correspond to
significantforms, features and
spatial relationships
within the landscapeand its surrounds (see Figure 22, page 1
1 for an example.) The points may also correspondto historic
views to illustrate the change in the landscape todate. These
locations may also be used as a management tool todocument
the landscape's evolution, and to ensure that its
character-definingfeatures are preserved over time through
informed maintenanceoperations and later treatment and
management decisions.
All features that
contribute to the landscape's historic charactershould be
recorded. These include the physical features describedon
page 1 (e.g. topography, circulation), and the visual and
spatialrelationships that are character defining. The
identificationof existing plants, should be specific,
including genus, species,common name, age (if known) and
size. The woody, and if appropriate,herbaceous plant material
should be accurately located on theexisting conditions map.
To ensure full representation of successionalherbaceous
plants, care should be taken to document the landscapein
different seasons, if possible.
Treating living plant
materials as a curatorial collection hasalso been undertaken
at some cultural landscapes. This process,either done
manually or by computer, can track the condition
andmaintenance operations on individual plants. Some sites,
suchas the Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site, in
Brookline,Massachusetts have developed a field investigation
numbering systemto track all woody plants. (See Table, page
9) Due to concernfor the preservation of genetic diversity
and the need to replacesignificant plant materials, a number
of properties are beginningto propagate historically
important rare plants that are no longercommercially
available, unique, or possess significant
historicassociations. Such herbarium collections become a
part of a site'snatural history collection.
Once the research and the
documentation of existing conditionshave been completed, a
foundation is in place to analyze the landscape'scontinuity
and change, determine its significance, assess itsintegrity,
and place it within the historic context of
similarlandscapes.
Reading the
Landscape
A noted geographer
stated, "The attempt to derive meaningfrom landscapes
possesses overwhelming virtue. It keeps us constantlyalert to
the world around us, demanding that we pay attentionnot just
to some of the things around us but to all of them-thewhole
visible world in all of its rich, glorious, messy,
confusing,ugly, and beautiful complexity."4
Landscapes can be read on
many levels-landscape as nature, habitat,artifact, system,
problem, wealth, ideology, history, place andaesthetic.5 When
developing a strategy to document a culturallandscape, it is
important to attempt to read the landscape inits context of
place and time. (See Figures 16-17, page 8)
Reading the landscape,
like engaging in archival research, requiresa knowledge of
the resource and subject area as well as a willingnessto be
skeptical. As with archival research, it may involve
serendipitousdiscoveries. Evidence gained from reading the
landscape may confirmor contradict other findings and may
encourage the observer andthe historian to revisit both
primary and secondary sources with a fresh outlook.Landscape
investigation may also stimulate other forms of researchand
survey, such as oral histories or archeological
investigations,to supplement what appeared on-site.
There are many ways to
read a landscape-whatever approach is takenshould provide a
broad overview. This may be achieved by
combiningon-the-ground observations with a bird's-eye
perspective. To beginthis process, aerial photographs should
be reviewed to gain anorientation to the landscape and its
setting. Aerial photographscome in different sizes and
scales, and can thus portray differentlevels of detail in the
landscape. Aerial photographs taken ata high altitude, for
example, may help to reveal remnant fieldpatterns or traces
of an abandoned circulation system; or, portionsof axial
relationships that were part of the original design,since
obscured by encroaching woodland areas. Low altitude
aerialphotographs can point out individual features such as
the arrangementof shrub and herbaceous borders, and the exact
locations of furnishings,lighting, and fence alignments. This
knowledge can prove beneficialbefore an on-site visit.
Aerial photographs
provide clues that can help orient the viewerto the
landscape. The next step may be to view the landscape froma
high point such as a knoll or an upper floor window. Such
avantage point may provide an excellent transition before
physicallyentering the cultural landscape.
On ground, evidence
should then be studied, including character-definingfeatures,
visual and spatial relationships. By reviewing
supportingmaterials from historic research, individual
features can be understoodin a systematic fashion that show
the continuum that exists onthe ground today. By classifying
these features and relationships,the landscape can be
understood as an artifact, possessing evidenceof evolving
natural systems and human interventions over time.
For example, the on-site
investigation of an abandoned turn-of-the-centuryfarm complex
reveals the remnant of a native oak and pine forestwhich was
cut and burned in the mid-nineteenth century. This
previoususe is confirmed by a small stand of mature oaks and
the presenceof these plants in the emerging secondary
woodland growth thatis overtaking this farm complex in
decline. A ring count of thetrees can establish a more
accurate age. By reading othercharacter-defining
features-such as the traces of old roads, remnanthedgerows,
ornamental trees along boundary roads, foundation
plantings,the terracing of grades and remnant fences -the
visual, spatialand contextual relationships of the property
as it existed a centuryago may be understood and its present
condition and integrityevaluated.
The findings of on-site
reconnaissance, such as materials uncoveredduring archival
research, may be considered primary data. Thesefindings make
it possible to inventory and evaluate the landscape'sfeatures
in the context of the property's current condition.
Character-definingfeatures are located in situ, in
relationship to each other andthe greater cultural and
geographic contexts.
Historic Plant
Inventory
Within cultural
landscapes, plants may have historical or
botanicalsignificance. A plant may have been associated with
a historicfigure or event or be part of a notable landscape
design. A plantmay be an uncommon cultivar, exceptional in
size, age, rare andcommercially/ unavailable. If such plants
are lost, there wouldbe a loss of historic integrity and
biological diversity of thecultural landscape. To ensure that
significant plants are preserved,an inventory of historic
plants is being conducted at the NorthAtlantic Region of the
National Park Service.8 Historical landscapearchitects work
with landscape managers and historians to gatheroral and
documented history on the plant's origin and
potentialsignificance. Each plant is then examined in the
field by an experthorticulturist who records its name,
condition, age, size, distribution,and, any notable botanic
characteristics.
Plants that are difficult
to identify or are of potential historicalsignificance are
further examined in the laboratory by a planttaxonomist who
compares leaf, fruit, and flower characteristicswith
herbarium specimens for named species, cultivars and
varieties.For plants species with many cultivars, such as
apples, roses,and grapes, specimens may be sent to
specialists for identification.
If a plant cannot be
identified, is dying or in decline, and unavailablefrom
commercial nurseries, it may be propagated. Propagation
ensuresthat when rare and significant plants decline, they
can be replacedwith genetically-identical plants. Cuttings
are propagated andgrown to replacement size in a North
Atlantic Region HistoricPlant Nursery.
-
1. The Arnold
Arboretum's preservation technician, lilac specialist,and
horticulturist compare lilacs from the Vanderbilt
MansionNational Historic Site in Hyde Park, New York with
lilac specimensin the Arboretum's living collection.
(courtesy Olmsted Center)
-
2. The Arnold
Arboretum's horticulturist and preservationtechnician
examine an enormous black locust tree at the Home ofF.D.
Roosevelt National Historic Site in Hyde Park, NY.
(courtesyOlmsted Center)
3. The Arnold Arboretum's
horticulturist, landscape historian,and preservation
technician examine shrubs at the Longfellow NationalHistoric
Site in Cambridge, MA. (courtesy Olmsted Center)
Site Analysis: Evaluating
Integrity and Significance
By analyzing the
landscape, its change over time can be understood.This may be
accomplished by overlaying the various period planswith the
existing conditions plan. Based on these findings,
individualfeatures may be attributed to the particular period
when theywere introduced, and the various periods when they
were present.
It is during this step
that the historic significance ofthe landscape
component of a historic property and its integrityare
determined. Historic significance is the recognized
importancea property displays when it has been evaluated,
including whenit has been found to meet National Register
Criteria.9 A landscapemay have several areas of historical
significance. An understandingof the landscape as a continuum
through history is critical inassessing its cultural and
historic value. In order for the landscapeto have integrity,
these character-defining features or qualitiesthat contribute
to its significance must be present.
While National Register
nominations document the significanceand integrity of
historic properties, in general, they may notacknowledge the
significance of the landscape's design or historicland uses,
and may not contain an inventory of landscape featuresor
characteristics. Additional research is often necessary
toprovide the detailed information about a landscape's
evolutionand significance useful in making decision for the
treatment andmaintenance of a historic landscape. Existing
National Registerforms may be amended to recognize additional
areas of significanceand to include more complete
descriptions of historic propertiesthat have significant land
areas and landscape features.
Integrity is a
property's historic identity evidenced bythe survival of
physical characteristics from the property's historicor
prehistoric period. The seven qualities of integrity are
location,setting, feeling, association, design, workmanship
and materials.10When evaluating these qualities, care should
be taken to considerchange itself. For example, when a
second-generation woodlandovertakes an open pasture in a
battlefield landscape, or a woodlandedge encloses a scenic
vista. For situations such as these, thereversibility and/or
compatibility of those features should beconsidered, both
individually, and in the context of the overalllandscape.
Together, evaluations of significance and integrity,when
combined with historic
research, documentation
of existing conditions, and analysis findings,influence later
treatment and interpretation decisions. (See
Figure21-23)
Developing a Historic Preservation Approach and Treatment
Plan
Treatment may be defined
as work carried out to achieve a historicpreservation goal-it
cannot be considered in a vacuum. There aremany practical and
philosophical factors that may influence theselection of a
treatment for a landscape. These include the relativehistoric
value of the property, the level of historic
documentation,existing physical conditions, its historic
significance and integrity,historic and proposed use (e.g.
educational, interpretive, passive,active public,
institutional or private), long- and short-termobjectives,
operational and code requirements (e.g. accessibility,fire,
security) and costs for anticipated capital
improvement,staffing and maintenance. The value of any
significant archeologicaland natural resources should also be
considered in the decision-making process. Therefore,a
cultural landscape's preservation plan and the treatment
selectedwill consider a broad array of dynamic and
interrelated considerations.It will often take the form of a
plan with detailed guidelinesor specifications.
Adopting such a plan, in
concert with a preservation maintenanceplan (page 18-19),
acknowledges a cultural landscape's ever-changingexistence
and the interrelationship of treatment and ongoing
maintenance.Performance standards, scheduling and record
keeping of maintenanceactivities on a day-to-day or
month-to-month basis, may then beplanned for. Treatment,
management, and maintenance proposalscan be developed by a
broad range of professionals and with expertisein such fields
as landscape preservation, horticulture, ecology,and
landscape maintenance.
The selection of a
primary treatment for the landscape, utilizingthe Secretary
of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment ofHistoric
Properties, establishes an overall historic
preservationapproach, as well as a philosophical framework
from which to operate.Selecting a treatment is based on many
factors. They include managementand interpretation objectives
for the property as a whole, theperiod(s) of significance,
integrity, and condition of individuallandscape
features.
For all treatments, the
landscape's existing conditions and itsability to convey
historic significance should be carefully considered.For
example, the life work, design philosophy and extant legacyof
an individual designer should all be understood for a
designedlandscape such as an estate, prior to treatment
selection. Fora vernacular landscape, such as a battlefield
containing a largelyintact mid-nineteenth century family
farm, the uniqueness of thatagrarian complex within a local,
regional, state, and nationalcontext should be considered in
selecting a treatment.
The overall historic
preservation approach and treatment approachcan ensure the
proper retention, care, and repair of landscapesand their
inherent features.11 In short, the Standards act asa
preservation and management tool for cultural landscapes.
Thefour potential treatments are described in the box
opposite.
Landscape treatments can
range from simple, inexpensive preservationactions, to
complex major restoration or reconstruction projects.The
progressive framework is inverse in proportion to the
retentionof historic features and materials. Generally,
preservation involvesthe least change, and is the most
respectful of historic materials.It maintains the form and
material of the existing landscape.Rehabilitation usually
accommodates contemporary alterations oradditions without
altering significant historic features or materials,with
successful projects involving minor to major change.
Restorationor reconstruction attempts to recapture the
appearance of a property,or an individual feature at a
particular point in time, as confirmedby detailed historic
documentation. These last two treatmentsmost often require
the greatest degree of intervention and thus,the highest
level of documentation.
In all cases, treatment
should be executed at the appropriatelevel reflecting the
condition of the landscape, with repair workidentifiable upon
close inspection and/or indicated in
supplementalinterpretative information. When repairing or
replacing a feature,every effort should be made to achieve
visual and physical compatibility.Historic materials should
be matched in design, scale, color andtexture.
A landscape with a high
level of integrity and authenticity maysuggest preservation
as the primary treatment. Such a treatmentmay emphasize
protection, stabilization, cyclical maintenance,and repair of
character-defining landscape features. Changes overtime that
are part of the landscape's continuum and are significant in
their own right may be retained,while changes that are not
significant, yet do not encroach uponor erode character may
also be maintained. Preservation entailsthe essential
operations to safeguard existing resources.
(Figures27-28)
Rehabilitation is often
selected in response to a contemporaryuse or need-ideally
such an approach is compatible with the landscape'shistoric
character and historic use. Rehabilitation may
preserveexisting fabric along with introducing some
compatible changes,new additions and alterations.
Rehabilitation may be desirableat a private residence in a
historic district where the homeowner'sgoal is to develop an
appropriate landscape treatment for a frontyard, or in a
public park where a support area is needed for itsmaintenance
operations. (Figures 29-31)
When the most important
goal is to portray a landscape and itscharacter-defining
features at an exact period of time, restorationis selected
as the primary treatment. Unlike preservation
andrehabilitation, interpreting the landscape's continuum or
evolutionis not the objective. Restoration may include the
removal of featuresfrom other periods and/or the construction
of missing or lostfeatures and materials from the
reconstruction period. In allcases, treatment should be
substantiated by the historic researchfindings and existing
conditions documentation. Restoration andreconstruction
treatment work should avoid the creation of a landscapewhose
features did not exist historically. For example, if
featuresfrom an earlier period did not co-exist with extant
features froma later period that are being retained, their
restoration wouldnot be appropriate. (Figures 32-34)
In rare cases, when
evidence is sufficient to avoid conjecture,and no other
property exists that can adequately explain a certainperiod
of history, reconstruction may be utilized to depict
avanished landscape. The accuracy of this work is critical.
Incases where topography and the subsurface of soil have not
beendisturbed, research and existing conditions findings may
be confirmedby thorough archeological investigations. Here
too, those featuresthat are intact should be repaired as
necessary, retaining theoriginal historic features to the
greatest extent possible. Thegreatest danger in
reconstruction is creating a false pictureof history.
False historicism in
every treatment should be avoided. This appliesto individual
features as well as the entire landscape. Examplesof
inappropriate work include the introduction of
historic-lookingbenches that are actually a new design, a
fanciful gazebo placedin what was once an open meadow,
executing an unrealized historicdesign, or designing a
historic-looking landscape for a relocatedhistoric structure
within "restoration."
Landscape
Interpretation
Landscape interpretation
is the process of providing the visitorwith tools to
experience the landscape as it existed during itsperiod of
significance, or as it evolved to its present state.These
tools may vary widely, from a focus on existing featuresto
the addition of interpretive elements. These could
includeexhibits, self-guided brochures, or a new
representation of alost feature. The nature of the cultural
landscape, especiallyits level of significance, integrity,
and the type of visitationanticipated may frame the
interpretive approach. Landscape interpretationmay be closely
linked to the integrity and condition of the landscape,and
therefore, its ability to convey the historic character
andcharacter-defining features of the past. If a landscape
has highintegrity, the interpretive approach may be to direct
visitorsto surviving historic features without introducing
obtrusive interpretivedevices such as free-standing signs.
For landscapes with a diminishedintegrity, where limited or
no fabric remains, the interpretiveemphasis may be on using
extant features and visual aids (e.g.markers, photographs,
etc.) to help visitors visualize the resourceas it existed in
the past. The primary goal in these situationsis to educate
the visitor about the landscape's historic
themes,associations and lost character-defining features or
broader historical,social and physical landscape
contexts.
Treatments for Cultural
Landscapes
Prior to undertaking
work on a landscape, a treatment planor similar document
should be developed. The four primary treatmentsidentified in
the Secretary of the Interior's Standards for theTreatment of
Historic Properties12, are:
Preservation is
defined as the act or process of applyingmeasures necessary
to sustain the existing form, integrity, andmaterials of an
historic property. Work, including preliminarymeasures to
protect and stabilize the property, generally focusesupon the
ongoing maintenance and repair of historic materialsand
features rather than extensive replacement and new
constructionsNew additions are not within the scope of this
treatment; however,the limited and sensitive upgrading of
mechanical, electricaland plumbing systems and other
code-required work to make propertiesfunctional is
appropriate within a preservation project.
Rehabilitation
is defined as the act or process of makingpossible a
compatible use for a property through repair, alterations,and
additions while preserving those portions or features
whichconvey its historical
or cultural values.
Restoration is
defined as the act or process of accuratelydepicting the
form, features, and character of a property as itappeared at
a particular period of time by means of the removalof
features from other periods in its history and
reconstructionof missing features from the restoration
period. The limited andsensitive upgrading of mechanical,
electrical and plumbing systemsand other code-required work
to make properties functional isappropriate within a
restoration project.
Reconstruction
is defined as the act or process of depicting,by means of new
construction, the form, features, and detailingof a
non-surviving site, landscape, building, structure, or
objectfor the purpose of replicating its appearance at a
specific periodof time and in its historic
location.
Developing a Preservation Maintenance Plan and
Implementation
Throughout the
preservation planning process, it is importantto ensure that
existing landscape features are retained.
Preservationmaintenance is the practice of monitoring and
controlling changein the landscape to ensure that its
historic integrity is notaltered and features are not lost.
This is particularly importantduring the research and
long-term treatment planning process.To be effective, the
maintenance program must have a guiding philosophy,approach
or strategy; an understanding of preservation
maintenancetechniques; and a system for documenting changes
in the landscape.
The philosophical
approach to maintenance should coincide withthe landscape's
current stage in the preservation planning process.A Cultural
Landscape Report and Treatment Plan can take severalyears to
complete, yet during this time managers and propertyowners
will likely need to address immediate issues related tothe
decline, wear, decay, or damage of landscape features.
Therefore,initial maintenance operations may focus on the
stabilizationand protection of all landscape features to
provide temporary,often emergency measures to prevent
deterioration, failure, orloss, without altering the site's
existing character.
After a Treatment Plan is
implemented, the approach to preservationmaintenance may be
modified to reflect the objectives definedby this plan. The
detailed specifications prepared in the TreatmentPlan
relating to the retention, repair, removal, or replacementof
features in the landscape should guide and inform a
comprehensivepreservation maintenance program. This would
include schedulesfor monitoring and routine maintenance,
appropriate preservationmaintenance procedures, as well as
ongoing record keeping of workperformed. For vegetation, the
preservation maintenance programwould also include thresholds
for growth or change in character,appropriate pruning
methods, propagation and replacement procedures.
To facilitate operations,
a property may be divided into discretemanagement zones
(Figure 41). These zones are sometimes definedduring the
Cultural Landscape Report process and are typicallybased on
historically defined areas. Alternatively, zones createdfor
maintenance practices and priorities could be used.
Examplesof maintenance zones would include woodlands, lawns,
meadow, specimentrees, and hedges.
Training of maintenance
staff in preservation maintenance skillsis essential.
Preservation maintenance practices differ from
standardmaintenance practices because of the focus on
perpetuating thehistoric character or use of the landscape
rather than beautification.For example, introducing new
varieties of turf, roses or treesis likely to be
inappropriate. Substantial earth moving (or movementof soil)
may be inappropriate where there are potential
archeologicalresources. An old hedge or shrub should be
rejuvenated, or propagated,rather than removed and replaced.
A mature specimen tree may requirecabling and careful
monitoring to ensure that it is not a threatto visitor
safety. Through training programs and with the assistanceof
preservation maintenance specialists, each property could
developmaintenance specifications for the care of landscape
features.
Because landscapes change
through the seasons, specificationsfor ongoing preservation
maintenance should be organized in acalendar format. During
each season or month, the calendar canbe referenced to
determine when, where, and how preservation maintenanceis
needed. For example, for some trees structural pruning is
bestdone in the late winter while other trees are best pruned
in thelate summer. Serious pests are monitored at specific
times ofthe year, in certain stages of their life cycle. This
detailedcalendar will in turn identify staff needs and work
priorities.
Depending on the level of
sophistication desired, one approachto documenting
maintenance data and recording change over timeis to use a
computerized geographical or visual information system.13Such
a system would have the capability to include plans and
photographsthat would focus on a site's landscape
features.
If a computer is not
available, a manual or notebook can be developedto organize
and store important information. This approach allowsmanagers
to start at any level of detail and to begin to collectand
organize information about landscape features (see Box
oppositeand above). The value of these maintenance records
cannot be overstated.These records will be used in the future
by historians to understandhow the landscape has evolved with
the ongoing care of the maintenancestaff.
Developing a Preservation
Maintenance Guide
In the past, there was
rarely adequate record-keeping to fullyunderstand the ways a
landscape was maintained. This creates gapsin our research
findings. Today, we recognize that planning forongoing
maintenance and onsite applications should be
documented-bothroutinely and comprehensively. An annual work
program or calendarrecords the frequency of maintenance work
on built or naturallandscape features. It can also monitor
the age, health and vigorof vegetation. For example, onsite
assessments may document thepresence of weeds, pests, dead
leaves, pale color, wilting, soil compactionall of which
signal particular maintenance needs. For built elements,the
deterioration of paving or drainage systems may be noted
andthe need for repair or replacement indicated before
hazards develop.An overall maintenance program can assist in
routine and cyclicmaintenance of the landscape and can also
guide long term treatmentprojects.
To help structure a
comprehensive maintenance operation that isresponsive to
staff, budget, and maintenance priorities, the NationalPark
Service has developed two computer-driven programs for itsown
landscape resources. A Maintenance Management Program (MM)is
designed to assist maintenance managers in their efforts
toplan, organize, and direct the park maintenance system. An
Inventoryand Condition Assessment Program (ICAP) is designed
to complementMM by providing a system for inventorying,
assessing conditions,and for providing corrective work
recommendations for all sitefeatures.
Another approach to
documenting maintenance and recording changesover time is to
develop a manual or computerized graphic informationsystem.
Such a system should have the capability to include plansand
photographs that would record a site's living collection
ofplant materials. (Also see discussion of the use of
photographyunder Preparing Existing Conditions Plans, page
5.) This may beachieved using a computer-aided drafting
program along with anintegrated database management
system.
To guide immediate and
ongoing maintenance, a systematic and flexibleapproach has
been developed by the Olmsted Center for
LandscapePreservation. Working with National Park Service
landscape managersand maintenance specialists, staff assemble
information and makerecommendations for the care of
individual landscape features.
Each landscape feature is
inspected in the field to document existingconditions and
identify field work needed. Recommendations
includemaintenance procedures that are sensitive to the
integrity ofthe landscape.
Recording Treatment Work and Future Research
Recommendations
The last and ongoing step
in the preservation planning processrecords the treatment
work as carried out. It may include a seriesof as-built
drawings, supporting photographic materials,
specificationsand a summary assessment. New technologies that
have been successfullyused should be highlighted. Ideally,
this information should beshared with interested national
organizations for further disseminationand evaluation.
The need for further
research or additional activities shouldalso be documented.
This may include site-specific or contextualhistorical
research, archeological investigations, pollen
analysis,search for rare or unusual plant materials, or,
material testingfor future applications.
Finally, in consultation
with a conservator or archivist-to maximizethe benefit of
project work and to minimize the potentialof data loss-all
primary documents should be organized and preservedas
archival materials. This may include field notes, maps,
drawings,photographs, material samples, oral histories and
other relativeinformation.
Summary
The planning, treatment,
and maintenance of cultural landscapesrequires a
multi-disciplinary approach. In landscapes, such asparks and
playgrounds, battlefields, cemeteries, village greens,and
agricultural land preserves more than any other type of
historicresource-communities rightly presume a sense of
stewardship. Itis often this grass roots commitment that has
been a catalystfor current research and planning initiatives.
Individual residentialproperties often do not require the
same level of public outreach,yet a systematic planning
process will assist in making educatedtreatment, management
and maintenance decisions.
Wise stewardship protects
the character, and or spirit of a placeby recognizing history
as change over time. Often, this also involvesour own
respectful changes through treatment. The potential
benefitsfrom the preservation of cultural landscapes are
enormous. Landscapesprovide scenic, economic, ecological,
social, recreational andeducational opportunities that help
us understand ourselves asindividuals, communities and as a
nation. Their ongoing preservationcan yield an improved
quality of life for all, and, above all,a sense of place or
identity for future generations.
Selected Reading
Birnbaum, Charles A,
guest editor. Preservation Forum. "Focuson Landscape
Preservation". Washington, D.C.: National Trustfor Historic
Preservation, Volume 7, No. 3, May/June 1992.
Buggey Susan, guest
editor. APT Bulletin. Special Issue: ConservingHistoric
Landscapes. Fredericksburg, VA: Association for
PreservationTechnology International, Volume XXIV, No. 3-4,
1992.
Burns, John A, and the
Staff of HABS/HAER. Recording
HistoricStructures. American Institute of Architects
Press, 1989.(Includes chapter on the documentation of
Meridian Hill Park,pp. 206-219.)
Diehl, Janet and Thomas
S. Barrett, et al. The Conservation EasementHandbook.
Managing Land Conservation and Historic PreservationEasement
Programs, The Land Trust Exchange
(now Alliance) and the
Trust for Public Land, 1988.
International Committee
of Historic Gardens and Sites, ICOMOS-IFLA.Jardins et
Sites Historiques, Scientific Journal. ICOMOS1993.
Compilation of papers on the subject, in both English
andFrench.
Kelso, William M., and
Rachel Most. Earth Patterns: Essaysin Landscape
Archaeology. Charlottesville, VA. UniversityPress of
Virginia, 1990.
Stokes, Samuel, N., et
al. Saving America's Countryside: A Guideto Rural
Conservation.
Baltimore and London:
John Hopkins University Press, 1989.
Tishler, William, editor.
American Landscape Architecture:Designers and Places.
Washington, DC: The Preservation Press,1989.
Several publications
available from the National Park Servicedeal directly with
the preservation of historic landscapes. Theseinclude:
America's Landscape
Legacy, Brochure, Preservation AssistanceDivision,
1992.
Guidelines for the
Treatment of Historic Landscapes, PreservationAssistance
Division 1992 (Draft).
Case Studies in
Landscape Preservation, Preservation AssistanceDivision
in cooperation with the Alliance for Landscape
Preservation,1995.
Cultural Landscapes
Bibliography: An Annotated Bibliography ofResources in the
National Park System, Park Historic ArchitectureDivision,
1992.
Historic Landscape
Directory; A Source Book of Agencies,Organizations, and
Institutions Providing Information on HistoricLandscape
Preservation, Preservation Assistance Division, 1991.
CRM, Cultural Resource
Management, Thematic Issues: The Preservationof Cultural
Landscapes, Volume 14, No.6, 1991; A RealityCheck for
Our Nation's Parks, Volume 16,
No. 4,1993; Historic
Transportation Corridors, Volume 16, No.11, 1993; and, The
Interpretation of Cultural Landscapes, Volume17, No.
8,1994.
Pioneers of American
Landscape Design: An Annotated Bibliography,Preservation
Assistance Division, 1993 (ISBN:0-16-041974-3).
Making Educated
Decisions: A Landscape Preservation Bibliography,Preservation
Assistance Division, 1994 (ISBN:0-16-045145-0)
National Register
Bulletin 18: How to Evaluate and NominateDesigned Historic
Landscapes; National Register Bulletin 30: Guidelinesfor
Evaluating and Documenting Rural Historic
Landscapes; National
Register Bulletin 40: Guidelines for Evaluatingand
Registering Battlefields; and, National Register Bulletin41:
Guidelines for Evaluating and
Registering
Cemeteries, Interagency Resources Division.
Endnotes
1 The cultural
landscape definitions are contained
inNPS-28, Cultural Resource Management
Guideline, Release No.4,1994, National Park
Service.
2 For an expanded list of
offices to contact, see America'sLandscape Legacy
brochure. Free from the National Park ServicePreservation
Assistance Division.
3 From Kelso, William,
A Report on the Archeological Excavationat Monticello,
Charlottesville, VA, 1979-1981, Thomas JeffersonMemorial
Foundation, 1982.
4 Lewis, Pierce, "Common
Landscapes as Historic Documents,"Lubar, Steven and Kingery,
W. David (eds.), Essays on MaterialCulture,
Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, 1993,p.
138.
5 Meinig, D.W. "The
Beholding Eye: Ten Versions of the SameScene," The
Interpretation of Ordinary Landscapes,Oxford
University Press, New York, 1979, pp. 33-48.
6 See National Park
Service National Register Bulletins underSelected
Reading (opposite).
7 The Historic American
Buildings Survey, HABS, has generatedstandards for landscape
documentation that they now utilize ona number of projects.
Specifically, a case study on recordinghistoric landscapes is
included in Recording Historic Structures,pp. 206-219.
See Selected Reading (opposite).
8 This is being
undertaken with technical assistance from theOlmsted Center
for Landscape Preservation a partnership betweenthe National
Park Service and the Arnold Arboretum of HarvardUniversity
that provides cultural landscape technical
assistance,technology development and training.
9 See National
Register Bulletin 16A: How to Complete the NationalRegister
Registration Form. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Departmentof
the Interior, National Park Service, Interagency
ResourcesDivision, 1991.
10 Ibid.
11 The standards are
general principles for the treatment of buildings,structures,
sites, objects, districts and landscapes. The
treatmentstandards are one set of standards included in the
broader groupknown as the Secretary of the Interior's
Standards for Archaeologyand Historic
Preservation.
12 The Secretary of the
Interior is responsible for establishingprofessional
standards and providing advice on the preservationand
protection of all cultural resources listed on or eligiblefor
the National Register of Historic Places. For a copy of
thebrochure, The Secretary of the Interior's Standards for
theTreatment of Historic Properties, 1992 contact the
NationalPark Service Preservation Assistance Division (424)
Box 37127Washington, DC 20013-7127.
13 A visual information
system, a computer-aided mapping programwith a linked
database, has been developed for the historic landscapeat the
Frederick Olmsted National Historic Site. Data can be
accesseddirectly from a digitized map such as information on
each plantincluding identification, age, location, size,
condition, andmaintenance history.
Acknowledgements
This publication has been
prepared pursuant to the National HistoricPreservation Act of
1966, as amended, which directs the Secretaryof the Interior
to develop and make information concerning
historicproperties. Comments on the usefulness of this
publication maybe directed to H. Ward Jandl, Deputy Chief,
Preservation AssistanceDivision, National Park Service, P.O.
Box 37127, Washington, D.C.20013-7127. This publication is
not copyrighted and can be reproducedwithout penalty. Normal
procedures for credit to the author andthe National Park
Service are appreciated.
The author, Charles A.
Birnbaum, Coordinator, Historic Landscape Initiative,
Preservation Assistance Division, National Park Service would
like to acknowledge the assistance of H. Ward Jandl and Kay
Weeks. The Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation at the
Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site including Margie
Coffin, Lauren Meier, Nora Mitchell, and Charlie Pepper
provided invaluable support. In particular, the proposed
rewrite on Preservation Maintenance and historic plant
materials was written by Margie Coffin. Significant
contributions were also made by Patricia M. O'Donnell, Linda
McClelland, Ellen Lipsey, Christine Capella Peters, Robert
Page, Ian Firth and Robert Melnick. Usefulcomments and
technical assistance were provided by regional NPS staff
(Mary Hughes, Lucy Lawliss, Jill Cowley, Sherda Williams,
Michael Crowe, Robbyn Jackson) and staff at the Preservation
Assistance Division (Cheryl Wagner, Michael Auer and Anne
Grimmer).
Washington, D.C.
September, 1994
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