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Roofing for Historic Buildings
Sarah M. Sweetser
Significance of the Roof
A weather-tight roof is basic in the preservation of a structure, regardless
of its age, size, or design. In the system that allows a building to work
as a shelter, the roof sheds the rain, shades from the sun, and buffers
the weather.
During some periods in the history of architecture, the roof imparts
much of the architectural character. It defines the style and contributes
to the building's aesthetics. The hipped roofs of Georgian architecture,
the turrets of Queen Anne, the Mansard roofs, and the graceful slopes
of the Shingle Style and Bungalow designs are examples of the use of roofing
as a major design feature.
But no matter how decorative the patterning or how compelling the form,
the roof is a highly vulnerable element of a shelter that will inevitable
fail. A poor roof will permit the accelerated deterioration of historic
building materials-- masonry, wood, plaster, paint--and will cause general
disintegration of the basic structure. Furthermore, there is an urgency
involved in repairing a leaky roof since such repair costs will quickly
become prohibitive. Although such action is desirable as soon as a failure
is discovered, temporary patching methods should be carefully chosen to
prevent inadvertent damage to sound or historic roofing materials and
related features. Before any repair work is performed, the historic value
of the materials used on the roof should be understood. Then a complete
internal and external inspection of the roof should be planned to determine
all the causes of failure and to identify the alternatives for repair
or replacement of the roofing.
Historic Roofing
Materials in America
Clay Tile: European settlers used clay tile for roofing as early as
the mid-17th century; many pantiles (S-curved tiles), as well as flat
roofing tiles, were used in Jamestown, Virginia. In some cities such as
New York and Boston, clay was popularly used as a precaution against such
fire as those that engulfed London in 1666 and scorched Boston in 1679.
Tiles roofs found in the mid-18th century Moravian settlements in Pennsylvania
closely resembled those found in Germany. Typically, the tiles were 1415"
long, 67" wide with a curved butt. A lug on the back allowed the tiles
to hang on the lathing without nails or pegs. The tile surface was usually
scored with finger marks to promote drainage. In the Southwest, the tile
roofs of the Spanish missionaries (mission tiles) were first manufactured
(ca. 1780) at the Mission San Antonio de Padua in California. These semicircular
tiles were made by molding clay over sections of logs, and they were generally
22" long and tapered in width.
The plain or flat rectangular tiles most commonly used from the 17th
through the beginning of the 19th century measured about 10" by 6" by
´'', and had two holes at one end for a nail or peg fastener. Sometimes
mortar was applied between the courses to secure the tiles in a heavy
wind.
In the mid-19th century, tile roofs were often replaced by sheet-metal
roofs, which were lighter and easier to install and maintain. However,
by the turn of the century, the Romanesque Revival and Mission style buildings
created a new demand and popularity for this picturesque roofing material.
Slate: Another practice settlers brought to the New World was slate
roofing. Evidence of roofing slates have been found also among the ruins
of mid-17th century Jamestown. But because of the cost and the time required
to obtain the material, which was mostly imported from Wales, the use
of slate was initially limited. Even in Philadelphia (the second largest
city in the English-speaking world at the time of the Revolution) slates
were so rare that "The Slate Roof House" distinctly referred to William
Penn's home built late in the 1600s. Sources of native slate were known
to exist along the eastern seaboard from Maine to Virginia, but difficulties
in inland transportation limited its availability to the cities, and contributed
to its expense. Welsh slate continued to be imported until the development
of canals and railroads in the mid-19th century made American slate more
accessible and economical.
Slate was popular for its durability, fireproof qualities, and aesthetic
potential. Because slate was available in different colors (red, green,
purple, and blue-gray), it was an effective material for decorative patterns
on many 19th century roofs (Gothic and Mansard styles). Slate continued
to be used well into the 20th century, notably on many Tudor revival style
buildings of the 1920s.
Shingles: Wood shingles were popular throughout the country in all periods
of building history. The size and shape of the shingles as well as the
detailing of the shingle roof differed according to regional craft practices.
People within particular regions developed preferences for the local species
of wood that most suited their purposes. In New England and the Delaware
Valley, white pine was frequently used: in the South, cypress and oak;
in the far west, red cedar or redwood. Sometimes a protective coating
was applied to increase the durability of the shingle such as a mixture
of brick dust and fish oil, or a paint made of red iron oxide and linseed
oil.
Commonly in urban areas, wooden roofs were replaced with more fire resistant
materials, but in rural areas this was not a major concern. On many Victorian
country houses, the practice of wood shingling survived the technological
advances of metal roofing in the 19th century, and near the turn of the
century enjoyed a full revival in its namesake, the Shingle Style. Colonial
revival and the Bungalow styles in the 20th century assured wood shingles
a place as one of the most fashionable, domestic roofing materials.
Metal: Metal roofing in America is principally a 19th-century phenomenon.
Before then the only metals commonly used were lead and copper. For example,
a lead roof covered "Rosewell," one of the grandest mansions in 18th century
Virginia. But more often, lead was used for protective flashing. Lead,
as well as copper, covered roof surfaces where wood, tile, or slate shingles
were inappropriate because of the roof's pitch or shape.
Copper with standing seams covered some of the more notable early American
roofs including that of Christ Church (17271744) in Philadelphia. Flat-seamed
copper was used on many domes and cupolas. The copper sheets were imported
from England until the end of the 18th century when facilities for rolling
sheet metal were developed in America.
Sheet iron was first known to have been manufactured here by the Revolutionary
War financier, Robert Morris, who had a rolling mill near Trenton, New
Jersey. At his mill Morris produced the roof of his own Philadelphia mansion,
which he started in 1794. The architect Benjamin H. Latrobe used sheet
iron to replace the roof on Princeton's "Nassau Hall," which had been
gutted by fire in 1802.
The method for corrugating iron was originally patented in England in
1829. Corrugating stiffened the sheets, and allowed greater span over
a lighter framework, as well as reduced installation time and labor. In
1834 the American architect William Strickland proposed corrugated iron
to cover his design for the market place in Philadelphia.
Galvanizing with zinc to protect the base metal from rust was developed
in France in 1837. By the 1850s the material was used on post offices
and customhouses, as well as on train sheds and factories. In 1857 one
of the first metal roofs in the South was installed on the U.S. Mint in
New Orleans. The Mint was thereby " fireproofed" with a 20-gauge galvanized,
corrugated iron roof on iron trusses.
Tin-plate iron, commonly called "tin roofing," was used extensively
in Canada in the 18th century, but it was not as common in the United
States until later. Thomas Jefferson was an early advocate of tin roofing,
and he installed a standing-seam tin roof on "Monticello" (ca. 17701802).
The Arch Street Meetinghouse (1804) in Philadelphia had tin shingles laid
in a herringbone pattern on a "piazza" roof.
However, once rolling mills were established in this country, the low
cost, light weight, and low maintenance of tin plate made it the most
common roofing material. Embossed tin shingles, whose surfaces created
interesting patterns, were popular throughout the country in the late
19th century. Tin roofs were kept well-painted, usually red; or, as the
architect A. J. Davis suggested, in a color to imitate the green patina
of copper.
Terne plate differed from tin plate in that the iron was dipped in an
alloy of lead and tin, giving it a duller finish. Historic, as well as
modern, documentation often confuses the two, so much that it is difficult
to determine how often actual "terne" was used.
Zinc came into use in the 1820s, at the same time tin plate was becoming
popular. Although a less expensive substitute for lead, its advantages
were controversial, and it was never widely used in this country.
Other Materials: Asphalt shingles and roll roofing were used in the
1890s. Many roofs of asbestos, aluminum, stainless steel, galvanized steel,
and lead-coated copper may soon have historic values as well. Awareness
of these and other traditions of roofing materials and their detailing
will contribute to more sensitive preservation treatments.
Locating the Problem
Failures of Surface Materials
When trouble occurs, it is important to contact a professional, either
an architect, a reputable roofing contractor, or a craftsman familiar
with the inherent characteristics of the particular historic roofing system
involved. These professionals may be able to advise on immediate patching
procedures and help plan more permanent repairs. A thorough examination
of the roof should start with an appraisal of the existing condition and
quality of the roofing material itself. Particular attention should be
given to any southern slope because year-round exposure to direct sun
may cause it to break down first.
Wood: Some historic roofing materials have limited life expectancies
because of normal organic decay and "wear." For example, the flat surfaces
of wood shingles erode from exposure to rain and ultraviolet rays. Some
species are more hardy than others, and heartwood, for example, is stronger
and more durable than sapwood.
Ideally, shingles are split with the grain perpendicular to the surface.
This is because if shingles are sawn across the grain, moisture may enter
the grain and cause the wood to deteriorate. Prolonged moisture on or
in the wood allows moss or fungi to grow, which will further hold the
moisture and cause rot.
Metal: Of the inorganic roofing materials used on historic buildings,
the most common are perhaps the sheet metals: lead, copper, zinc, tin
plate, terne plate, and galvanized iron. In varying degrees each of these
sheet metals are likely to deteriorate from chemical action by pitting
or streaking. This can be caused by airborne pollutants; acid rainwater;
acids from lichen or moss; alkalis found in lime mortars or portland cement,
which might be on adjoining features and washes down on the roof surface;
or tannic acids from adjacent wood sheathings or shingles made of red
cedar or
oak.
Corrosion from "galvanic action" occurs when dissimilar metals, such
as copper and iron, are used in direct contact. Corrosion may also occur
even though the metals are physically separated; one of the metals will
react chemically against the other in the presence of an electrolyte such
as rainwater. In roofing, this situation might occur when either a copper
roof is decorated with iron cresting, or when steel nails are used in
copper sheets. In some instances the corrosion can be prevented by inserting
a plastic insulator between the dissimilar materials. Ideally, the fasteners
should be a metal sympathetic to those involved.
Iron rusts unless it is well-painted or plated. Historically this problem
was avoided by use of tin plating or galvanizing. But this method is durable
only as long as the coating remains intact. Once the plating is worn or
damaged, the exposed iron will rust. Therefore, any iron-based roofing
material needs to be undercoated, and its surface needs to be kept well-painted
to prevent corrosion.
One cause of sheet metal deterioration is fatigue. Depending upon the
size and the gauge of the metal sheets, wear and metal failure can occur
at the joints or at any protrusions in the sheathing as a result from
the metal's alternating movement to thermal changes. Lead will tear because
of "creep," or the gravitational stress that causes the material to move
down the roof slope.
Slate: Perhaps the most durable roofing materials are slate and tile.
Seemingly indestructible, both vary in quality. Some slates are hard and
tough without being brittle. Soft slates are more subject to erosion and
to attack by airborne and rainwater chemicals, which cause the slates
to wear at nail holes, to delaminate, or to break. In winter, slate is
very susceptible to breakage by ice, or ice dams.
Tile: Tiles will weather well, but tend to crack or break if hit, as
by tree branches, or if they are walked on improperly. Like slates, tiles
cannot support much weight. Low quality tiles that have been insufficiently
fired during manufacture, will craze and spall under the effects of freeze
and thaw cycles on their porous surfaces.
Failures of Support Systems
Once the condition of the roofing material has been determined, the
related features and support systems should be examined on the exterior
and on the interior of the roof. The gutters and downspouts need periodic
cleaning and maintenance since a variety of debris fill them, causing
water to back up and seep under roofing units. Water will eventually cause
fasteners, sheathing, and roofing structure to deteriorate. During winter,
the daily freeze-thaw cycles can cause ice floes to develop under the
roof surface. The pressure from these ice floes will dislodge the roofing
material, especially slates, shingles, or tiles. Moreover, the buildup
of ice dams above the gutters can trap enough moisture to rot the sheathing
or the structural members.
Many large public buildings have built-in gutters set within the perimeter
of the roof. The downspouts for these gutters may run within the walls
of the building, or drainage may be through the roof surface or through
a parapet to exterior downspouts. These systems can be effective if properly
maintained; however, if the roof slope is inadequate for good runoff,
or if the traps are allowed to clog, rainwater will form pools on the
roof surface. Interior downspouts can collect debris and thus back up,
perhaps leaking water into the surrounding walls. Exterior downspouts
may fill with water, which in cold weather may freeze and crack the pipes.
Conduits from the built-in gutter to the exterior downspout may also leak
water into the surrounding roof structure or walls.
Failure of the flashing system is usually a major cause of roof deterioration.
Flashing should be carefully inspected for failure caused by either poor
workmanship, thermal stress, or metal deterioration (both of flashing
material itself and of the fasteners). With many roofing materials, the
replacement of flashing on an existing roof is a major operation, which
may require taking up large sections of the roof surface. Therefore, the
installation of top quality flashing material on a new or replaced roof
should be a primary consideration. Remember, some roofing and flashing
materials are not compatible.
Roof fasteners and clips should also be made of a material compatible
with all other materials used, or coated to prevent rust. For example,
the tannic acid in oak will corrode iron nails. Some roofs such as slate
and sheet metals may fail if nailed too rigidly.
If the roof structure appears sound and nothing indicates recent movement,
the area to be examined most closely is the roof substrate--the sheathing
or the battens. The danger spots would be near the roof plates, under
any exterior patches, at the intersections of the roof planes, or at vertical
surfaces such as dormers. Water penetration, indicating a breach in the
roofing surface or flashing, should be readily apparent, usually as a
damp spot or stain. Probing with a small pen knife may reveal any rot
which may indicate previously undetected damage to the roofing membrane.
Insect infestation evident by small exit holes and frass (a sawdustlike
debris) should also be noted. Condensation on the underside of the roofing
is undesirable and indicates improper ventilation. Moisture will have
an adverse effect on any roofing material; a good roof stays dry inside
and out.
Repair or Replace
Understanding potential weaknesses of roofing material also requires
knowledge of repair difficulties. Individual slates can be replaced normally
without major disruption to the rest of the roof, but replacing flashing
on a slate roof can require substantial removal of surrounding slates.
If it is the substrate or a support material that has deteriorated, many
surface materials such as slate or tile can be reused if handled care
fully during the repair. Such problems should be evaluated at the outset
of any project to determine if the roof can be effectively patched, or
if it should be completely replaced.
Will the repairs be effective? Maintenance costs tend to multiply once
trouble starts. As the cost of labor escalates, repeated repairs could
soon equal the cost of a new roof.
The more durable the surface is initially, the easier it will be to
maintain. Some roofing materials such as slate are expensive to install,
but if top quality slate and flashing are used, it will last 4060 years
with minimal maintenance. Although the installation cost of the roof will
be high, low maintenance needs will make the lifetime cost of the roof
less expensive.
Historical Research
In a restoration project, research of documents and physical investigation
of the building usually will establish the roof's history. Documentary
research should include any original plans or building specifications,
early insurance surveys, newspaper descriptions, or the personal papers
and files of people who owned or were involved in the history of the building.
Old photographs of the building might provide evidence of missing details.
Along with a thorough understanding of any written history of the building,
a physical investigation of the roofing and its structure may reveal information
about the roof's construction history. Starting with an overall impression
of the structure, are there any changes in the roof slope, its configuration,
or roofing materials? Perhaps there are obvious patches or changes in
patterning of exterior brickwork where a gable roof was changed to a gambrel,
or where a whole upper story was added. Perhaps there are obvious stylistic
changes in the roof line, dormers, or ornamentation. These observations
could help one understand any important alteration, and could help establish
the direction of further investigation.
Because most roofs are physically out of the range of careful scrutiny,
the "principle of least effort" has probably limited the extent and quality
of previous patching or replacing, and usually considerable evidence of
an earlier roof surface remains. Sometimes the older roof will be found
as an underlayment of the current exposed roof. Original roofing may still
be intact in awkward places under later features on a roof. Often if there
is any unfinished attic space, remnants of roofing may have been dropped
and left when the roof was being built or repaired. If the configuration
of the roof has been changed, some of the original material might still
be in place under the existing roof. Sometimes whole sections of the roof
and roof framing will have been left intact under the higher roof. The
profile and/or flashing of the earlier roof may be apparent on the interior
of the walls at the level of the alteration. If the sheathing or lathing
appears to have survived changes in the roofing surface, they may contain
evidence of the roofing systems. These may appear either as dirt marks,
which provide "shadows" of a roofing material, or as nails broken or driven
down into the wood,.rather than pulled out during previous alterations
or repairs. Wooden headers in the roof framing may indicate that earlier
chimneys or skylights have been removed. Any metal ornamentation that
might have existed may be indicated by anchors or unusual markings along
the ridge or at other edges of the roof. This primary evidence is essential
for a full understanding of the roof's history.
Caution should be taken in dating early "fabric" on the evidence of
a single item, as recycling of materials is not a mid-20th century innovation.
Carpenters have been reusing materials, sheathing, and framing members
in the interest of economy for centuries. Therefore, any analysis of the
materials found, such as nails or sawmarks on the wood, requires an accurate
knowledge of the history of local building practices before any final
conclusion can be accurately reached. It is helpful to establish a sequence
of construction history for the roof and roofing materials; any historic
fabric or pertinent evidence in the roof should be photographed, measured,
and recorded for future reference.
During the repair work, useful evidence might unexpectedly appear. It
is essential that records be kept of any type of work on a historic building,
before, during, and after the project. Photographs are generally the easiest
and fastest method, and should include overall views and details at the
gutters, flashing, dormers, chimneys, valleys, ridges, and eaves. All
photographs should be immediately labeled to insure accurate identification
at a later date. Any patterning or design on the roofing deserves particular
attention. For example, slate roofs are often decorative and have subtle
changes in size, color, and texture, such as a gradually decreasing coursing
length from the eave to the peak. If not carefully noted before a project
begins, there may be problems in replacing the surface. The standard reference
for this phase of the work is Recording Historic Buildings, compiled by
Harley J. McKee for the Historic American Buildings Survey, National Park
Service, Washington, D.C., 1970.
Replacing
the Historic Roofing Material
Professional advice will be needed to assess the various aspects of
replacing a historic roof. With some exceptions, most historic roofing
materials are available today. If not, an architect or preservation group
who has previously worked with the same type material may be able to recommend
suppliers. Special roofing materials, such as tile or embossed metal shingles,
can be produced by manufacturers of related products that are commonly
used elsewhere, either on the exterior or interior of a structure. With
some creative thinking and research, the historic materials usually can
be found.
Craft Practices: Determining the craft practices used in the installation
of a historic roof is another major concern in roof restoration. Early
builders took great pride in their work, and experience has shown that
the " rustic" or irregular designs commercially labeled "Early American"
are a 20thcentury invention. For example, historically, wood shingles
underwent several distinct operations in their manufacture including splitting
by hand, and smoothing the surface with a draw knife. In modern nomenclature,
the same item would be a "tapersplit" shingle which has been dressed.
Unfortunately, the rustic appearance of today's commercially available
" handsplit" and re-sawn shingle bears no resemblance to the handmade
roofing materials used on early American buildings.
Early craftsmen worked with a great deal of common sense; they understood
their materials. For example they knew that wood shingles should be relatively
narrow; shingles much wider than about 6" would split when walked on,
or they may curl or crack from varying temperature and moisture. It is
important to understand these aspects of craftsmanship, remembering that
people wanted their roofs to be weather-tight and to last a long time.
The recent use of "mothergoose" shingles on historic structures is a gross
underestimation of the early craftsman's skills.
Supervision: Finding a modern craftsman to reproduce historic details
may take some effort. It may even involve some special instruction to
raise his understanding of certain historic craft practices. At the same
time, it may be pointless (and expensive) to follow historic craft practices
in any construction that will not be visible on the finished product.
But if the roofing details are readily visible, their appearance should
be based on architectural evidence or on historic prototypes. For instance,
the spacing of the seams on a standing-seam metal roof will affect the
building's overall scale and should therefore match the original dimensions
of the seams.
Many older roofing practices are no longer performed because of modern
improvements. Research and review of specific detailing in the roof with
the contractor before beginning the project is highly recommended. For
example, one early craft practice was to finish the ridge of a wood shingle
roof with a roof "comb"--that is, the top
course of one slope of the roof was extended uniformly beyond the peak
to shield the ridge, and to provide some weather protection for the raw
horizontal edges of the shingles on the other slope. If the "comb" is
known to have been the correct detail, it should be used. Though this
method leaves the top course vulnerable to the weather, a disguised strip
of flashing will strengthen this weak point.
Detail drawings or a sample mockup will help ensure that the contractor
or craftsman understands the scope and special requirements of the project.
It should never be assumed that the modern carpenter, slater, sheet metal
worker, or roofer will know all the historic details. Supervision is as
important as any other stage of the process.
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